Health research funding agencies in Canada are increasingly focused on knowledge translation (KT), in part to demonstrate accountability for spending public dollars, but also recognizing they are well placed to facilitate the movement of evidence into practice and policy.

Because these agencies are funded by provincial governments, there is increased pressure to target resources towards resolving health system issues. The gap between the evidence generated and that which is applied in healthcare is becoming too large to ignore. KT, with its focus on helping researchers and research users (practitioners and decision makers) work together to create and apply knowledge, is seen as a way to reduce this gap. KT is variously described, but a definition increasingly used in Canada is attributed to the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR): a dynamic and iterative process that includes synthesis, dissemination, exchange and ethically-sound application of knowledge to improve the health of Canadians, provide more effective health services and products and strengthen the healthcare system[1].

KT has the potential to decrease adverse effects on patients and use taxpayers’ dollars more efficiently[2–4]. A growing literature is exploring the barriers to the dissemination and use of evidence by both researchers and those who use research. These barriers include lack of access to information, lack of knowledge and skills, inadequate infrastructure to support evidence-informed decision making, lack of strong leadership, lack of incentives, and intervention characteristics. This literature also suggests which mechanisms might overcome specific barriers in a range of settings, although the evidence is far from clear and this work is nascent[2, 5–11].

In an earlier article,[12] we discussed the work of one funding agency in British Columbia (BC), Canada, to support the use of health research evidence. Figure 1 presents our model comprising five key functional areas in which funding agencies can work: advancing KT science; building KT capacity; managing KT projects; funding KT activities; and advocating for KT. We suggest that together, these functions create an environment conducive to KT. The model acknowledges the complexity of using research evidence in healthcare, including how evidence and knowledge are conceptualized by diverse stakeholders[13–15].

This article describes a provincial needs assessment we undertook towards strengthening one of the five functional areas—building KT capacity, acknowledged as critical to improving the quality of healthcare[16]. We sought to identify KT training needs of both researchers and research users (healthcare practitioners and decision makers), given that both these groups, if supported appropriately, can play a key role in the dissemination and implementation of knowledge. Wilson et al. (2010) suggest more could be done—by funders, in particular—to require and support researchers to engage in KT in consistent ways. As for research users, from policy makers to decision makers to clinicians, evidence points to some of the barriers that prevent their engagement in KT (5,7,10). Although not all these barriers are easily overcome, learning opportunities are one mechanism that could be useful[17, 18]. Our needs assessment was one step towards developing these opportunities[17].

The term capacity building is widely used—particularly in health promotion and international development[19]—and its definitions are many. For our definition, we adapted one component of a framework developed through our agency’s Health Authority Capacity Building (HACB) program[20]. Although the framework encompasses research capacity building broadly, our interest was in the component ‘developing skills through providing training,’ which includes activities aimed at building appropriate knowledge, skills, and confidence in individuals through training opportunities and educational resources. This component is similar to the top two levels of Potter and Brough’s[19] four-tier hierarchy of capacity building needs: structures, systems, and roles; staff and facilities; skills; and tools. The model’s four tiers are interconnected in a logical hierarchy that depicts how each tier is dependent on, and builds on, lower tiers and their effectiveness towards capacity building. For example, for tools (the top of the hierarchy) to be effective they require that components of lower tiers (skills; staff and facilities; and structures, systems and roles) be appropriate and effective; however, components of lower tiers do not require higher tiers to exist and/or be effective in order to be effective capacity builders themselves. We appreciate the importance of the lower two tiers, and the warning of the authors that skills training alone will never sustain capacity; accordingly, training is only one part of the KT capacity building under consideration by our agency. We agree with Davis and Davis[17], however, that educational modalities may play a crucial role in predisposing to change more broadly. This change may be within individuals, but also organizationally and even beyond, helping to build momentum for other key areas of KT support such as leadership and technical infrastructure.

We developed a self-administered online survey as the most appropriate mechanism to understand KT training and resource needs in BC. Online surveys can elicit a high volume of feedback in a short amount of time from people who live in geographically separated areas. They can also be targeted to specific groups of people who share a common interest[21]. Challenges to using an online survey include the inability to control who responds, and the exclusion of those without access to the Internet[22] or who are unable to use online survey tools such as SurveyMonkey due to their organizations’ privacy policies. Such challenges could potentially lead to sampling issues. However, the survey was only the first step of a multi-phased project with opportunities for further needs assessment, so these challenges were not a concern. In our view, the potential negative aspects of online surveys (inability to estimate population parameters, perception as junk mail, skewed attributes of Internet population, privacy issues and low response rate) were outweighed by Evans’[22] list of ‘best uses’ for Internet surveys, including where wide geographic coverage is sought; a large sample is desired; and there is access to a good sample list.

Our intended audience was people who produce and/or use health research evidence as part of their work and—due to the complex nature of the subject—who are aware of the field of KT. We acknowledge there are many producers and users of health research evidence who are not aware of KT but who would appreciate access to training. An online survey is not the best way to determine the needs of this group because of potential unfamiliarity with the terminology and concepts used by those in the KT field. Other approaches are clearly needed to tap into their expertise and ideas about building KT capacity in BC.

Survey objectives were to determine KT training needs of communities that produce and use health research evidence, identify interest in KT training opportunities, and ask about barriers to KT training as well as KT practice. A review of both the Tri Council Policy Statement on Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans [Article 2.5][23] and completion of the University of British Columbia’s checklist for studies requiring ethical review[24] indicated ethics approval was not required for our needs assessment.

The final survey included 24 multiple choice and open-ended questions [see Additional file1]. Informed consent was not sought from respondents given that the survey was anonymous (i.e., no identifying information was collected) and its main purpose was a needs assessment. Demographic questions included primary professional role, geographic region (by the province’s five regional health authority areas), and workplace setting.

The first section of the survey focused on respondents’ interest in various KT skills in the categories of general KT, dissemination, synthesis, exchange, and application. Working definitions were provided for knowledge translation and each of the four components to establish common and clear understanding among respondents (Table 1). Respondents rated the importance of these components to their work on a scale of four from not important to very important. Respondents were also asked to record whether they were interested or not interested in learning any of 28 KT skills listed, and if they were interested, to self-assess what level of training they believe they needed (beginner, intermediate or advanced). A second section asked about KT support. Respondents were asked to pick their top two preferred learning formats from a list of options and to record the likelihood of their engaging in specific activities on a six-point scale (from very unlikely to very likely). In this section, they were also asked how much support they receive in their organization to participate in KT training (from no support to full support with regard to time, encouragement, registration fees and travel costs). They were also asked to check all that apply from a list of factors that would prevent participation. Finally, respondents rated seven barriers to doing KT in their work on a scale from one (not a barrier) to five (a major barrier). An open-ended question invited comments about what would support respondents to practice KT in their work.

We chose to use a communications strategy as a practical approach to recruitment based on our knowledge of the BC KT landscape and players. Dissemination of the survey began with targeted emails tailored to key stakeholder groups. We identified well-known and respected ‘KT champions’ within each BC geographic health region who were asked to distribute the link to the survey under their own signatures within their organizations. We also identified a broad list of researchers funded by our agency, as well as other research community stakeholders, who were asked to complete the survey and forward it to others; and we emailed ‘key influencers’ (leaders of health research-related organizations) who would support the survey. Reminder emails were sent two weeks later. The survey was live for three weeks and was promoted through social media, our agency’s e- newsletter, and our website. Some of our partners also promoted the survey through their organizational channels.

Of the 1,206 responses received, 1,071 met the criteria for inclusion in our analysis (i.e., more than the demographics section was filled out, and respondent located in BC). We used SPSS to analyze quantitative results. Overall frequencies provided us with initial findings, and based on demographic information, we further broke down data to understand different patterns by primary role, geographic region, and setting. We analyzed qualitative results, including ‘other’ responses, in NVivo using a thematic analysis that categorized comment concepts (for example, ‘time,’ as one of the barriers to doing KT at work).

To understand differences between those who more generally produce research and those who use it, we regrouped professional roles by categories of research producers (researchers, clinician-scientists, and research trainees) and research users (healthcare providers and administrators, public servants, and knowledge brokers). We considered knowledge brokers (intermediaries between producers and users of research) a unique group because of their hands-on role in KT, and therefore in some instances separated them. For a more nuanced understanding of the differences between respondents’ primary professional roles, we also compared seven unique groups—researchers, clinician-scientists, research trainees, healthcare providers, healthcare administrators, public servants, and knowledge brokers.

In a recent study of Canadian healthcare organizations, Ellen et al.[18] describe four key categories of KT supports for evidence-informed decision-making: roles that promote research use; ties to researchers outside the organization; technical infrastructure; and training programs to enhance staff capacity building. The survey described in this paper aims to increase understanding of how best to implement the fourth category, with the important caveat that training is ideally only one component of a broader strategy to increase the individual, organizational and in this case, provincial use of research evidence.

Our expectation of response numbers was modest, given survey fatigue, busy schedules, potential confusion over KT terminology or frustration with its perceived jargon, the survey length, and what seems to be a growing discomfort in the Canadian healthcare and academic sectors with data stored outside Canada (we used SurveyMonkey, which is based in the U.S.). Despite these concerns, the number of responses surpassed our expectations. We attribute the rate to the KT champions who distributed the link to the survey under their own signatures within their organizations. The keys to their doing so were our existing partnerships aimed at increasing evidence use in BC, our engagement with them throughout the development of the survey, our offer to provide regional results for their own use, and our intent to support them in delivering KT training programs and services based on the findings. While results include a good balance between respondents who are research producers and research users across the province, understanding of KT training needs of groups that were not as well represented in our survey (not-for-profit, government and private sectors) will be important.

That most respondents consider KT important to their work and are interested in learning more about it is perhaps not surprising, given that people who complete surveys tend to have a high interest in the topic[21, 22]. This interest is consistent with our experience to date in offering general KT skills workshops, which have been oversubscribed. The survey described in this paper was designed to move beyond general interest to specific training needs as well as other aspects important to training.

Four out of five respondents are interested in each KT skill listed, suggesting that demand would be high for any of the topics offered via training. Research producers are most interested in learning more about dissemination and general KT skills; research users are most interested in learning more about application and exchange skills. While these findings can be acted on, it will be important to bear in mind the subjectivity of this needs assessment and the importance of an objective component[17], for example based on core competencies[25]. Of note is that respondents rate the importance of KT to their work as high, yet the highest demand for training is at the beginner level. This may suggest that people do not feel knowledgeable enough to perform the KT tasks necessary for their roles. The fact that the survey relied on respondents to interpret ‘beginner, intermediate, and advanced’ training levels makes this finding difficult to interpret; see more on this finding in Strengths and Limitations, below. Also of note is that knowledge exchange is rated third in ‘importance to respondents’ work’ of the four components of KT (dissemination, synthesis, exchange, and application), yet had the highest overall interest in terms of skill-building. We are unclear as to the reason for this discrepancy. It may relate to the order and/or specificity of the survey questions themselves. That is, the question ‘How important to your work is knowledge exchange’ was asked first and included a general definition and description of ‘exchange’. Immediately following this question respondents’ were asked to indicate their interest in learning more about six very specific training topics related to exchange (see Additional file1). The specificity of the topics themselves may have served to spark interest in respondents in a way that a general definition and description of exchange did not.

Survey findings suggest that training formats should be flexible, easily accessed, and cost-effective. There is most interest in small group sessions as a learning format, and more likelihood that people will attend a KT workshop over most other activities. While results confirm the value of workshops in the province, it is also apparent that cost constraints and time commitments are the biggest barriers to participating in them. Offering a range of options—in terms of formats as well as fees—will increase the likelihood that more people can participate. It will be important to explore creative training models in order to move beyond more traditional didactic training where participants with similar backgrounds ‘learn and leave,’ with little opportunity to apply what they have discovered or talk about their experiences as they attempt to incorporate what they have learned in practice. For example, training that offers a mix of workshop-based and practice-based components, and that provides ongoing mentorship and specific problem-based learning, could be explored. A mix of participants in terms of professions could help build understanding of cultural and language differences, encourage integrated and end-of-grant KT activities and partnerships, and address a perceived barrier noted in our survey by healthcare providers and administrators—and to a lesser extent researchers—for opportunities to interact. Before designing training opportunities, further exploration of the evidence that shows what is most effective for whom will be necessary. For example, small group learning, distance education and communities of practice show promise for healthcare practitioners[17], while tools provided by funding agencies are recommended as a strategy for supporting researchers’ learning[11]. The preferences of policymakers, and best practices in training for this group, seems to be less clear. Indeed, existing literature on training tends to explore opinions, ideas, and likelihood of participating, rather than effectiveness of training formats and topics themselves. There is a huge opportunity in launching a KT training program to explore what works best for whom, as well as immediate, medium and longer term outcomes.

Given the high interest in KT training, finding enough trainers will be a challenge. Possibilities include encouragement and incentives for local KT leaders to share their knowledge and experience, and exploring the addition of train-the-trainer components into existing and new training initiatives. Building on existing training initiatives, and working across the province on a shared overall training program with flexibility for local adaptations, has the potential to maximize expertise and also resources as well as enable the setting of common objectives and measurement indicators.

Finally, as indicated earlier, while KT skills training is a key component of organizations’ support for evidence based decision making[18], it alone is not sufficient to increase the use of health research evidence. Some respondents in their comments drew a connection between organizational culture and time: without increased awareness and understanding of KT from leadership and staff, commitment to making KT a priority from management and others, and supportive structures that allow or require KT in the workflow, time will continue to be an issue. Just as one training intervention is not enough to result in a meaningful change in performance[3], building KT skills is only one component of developing a more supportive environment for KT. While funding agencies can address some organizational barriers (e.g., access to resources, opportunities for interactions between researchers and users of evidence, KT funding), results suggest the importance of working with partner organizations to address context-specific barriers to practicing KT and, importantly, to evaluate how specific mechanisms promote research engagement by organizations[26].

There are challenges to meeting the increasing political and societal expectations that research findings should generate a return on investments in the form of improved health and social and economic outcomes. Among them, research takes time to realize results, and implementation of those results into the complex system that is healthcare is not a linear process involving discrete, predictable and entirely manageable stages[28, 29].

The field of KT promises to address these challenges in a number of ways, one of which is through training to support the use of evidence for researchers and research users. This paper outlines the efforts of one funding agency and its partners to address the acknowledged shortage of people skilled in KT practice and science[25] by building capacity through training and resources. Given the high response to our survey and the interest in KT across Canada and nationally, we believe this is an opportune time for health research funders and other organizations involved in KT to determine how best to work in partnership to support evidence use in health practice and policy making.