Table 1 Five categories of theories, models and frameworks used in implementation science

Process models

Specify steps (stages, phases) in the process of translating research into practice, including the implementation and use of research. The aim of process models is to describe and/or guide the process of translating research into practice. An action model is a type of process model that provides practical guidance in the planning and execution of implementation endeavours and/or implementation strategies to facilitate implementation. Note that the terms “model” and “framework” are both used, but the former appears to be the most common

Model by Huberman [40], model by Landry et al. [41], model by Davies et al. [43], model by Majdzadeh et al. [44], the CIHR Model of Knowledge Translation [42], the K2A Framework [15], the Stetler Model [47], the ACE Star Model of Knowledge Transformation [48], the Knowledge-to-Action Model [13], the Iowa Model [49,50], the Ottawa Model [51,52], model by Grol and Wensing [53], model by Pronovost et al. [54], the Quality Implementation Framework [27]

Determinant frameworks

Specify types (also known as classes or domains) of determinants and individual determinants, which act as barriers and enablers (independent variables) that influence implementation outcomes (dependent variables). Some frameworks also specify relationships between some types of determinants. The overarching aim is to understand and/or explain influences on implementation outcomes, e.g. predicting outcomes or interpreting outcomes retrospectively

PARIHS [5,64], Active Implementation Frameworks [63,68], Understanding-User-Context Framework [62], Conceptual Model [17], framework by Grol et al. [22], framework by Cochrane et al. [59], framework by Nutley et al. [21], Ecological Framework by Durlak and DuPre [57], CFIR [60], framework by Gurses et al. [58], framework by Ferlie and Shortell [61], Theoretical Domains Framework [66]

Classic theories

Theories that originate from fields external to implementation science, e.g. psychology, sociology and organizational theory, which can be applied to provide understanding and/or explanation of aspects of implementation

Theory of Diffusion [107], social cognitive theories, theories concerning cognitive processes and decision making, social networks theories, social capital theories, communities of practice, professional theories, organizational theories

Implementation theories

Theories that have been developed by implementation researchers (from scratch or by adapting existing theories and concepts) to provide understanding and/or explanation of aspects of implementation

Implementation Climate [116], Absorptive Capacity [117], Organizational Readiness [118], COM-B [119], Normalization Process Theory [120]

Evaluation frameworks

Specify aspects of implementation that could be evaluated to determine implementation success

RE-AIM [124]; PRECEDE-PROCEED [125]; framework by Proctor et al. [126]