Table 2 Example research topics for optimizing audit and feedback

Factors related to context and/or recipient

Characteristics of the recipient

• Engagement in audit and/or in feedback design

• Goal orientation of recipients

• Degree of motivation to improve performance

• Training of recipients to understand and act on feedback

• Profession of recipient and/or multi-disciplinary feedback

Characteristics of the setting

• Location (e.g., hospital versus clinic, national setting)

• Organizational resources

• Size of the team responsible for outcomes of interest

Co-interventions

• Time and/or standardized support to reflect upon feedback

• Impact of combining A&F with one of the following:

• Incentives or penalties (financial, CME, licensing)

• Tools and practise aids (clinical decision tool)

• Education (academic detailing, group learning)

• Practice redesign (coaches, facilitation, mentorship)

Factors related to intervention design

Nature of delivery of the information

• Mode of delivery of feedback (e.g., paper, electronic, face-to-face)

• Length, duration

• Perceived credibility of the source and/or competence of the presenter

• Different sources (peer versus supervisor versus external group)

• Frequency of feedback

• Role of social pressure, dissemination/visibility of information to peer-group

Nature of the content

• Sign of the message (positive versus negative)

• Graded feedback (starting positive)

• Type of benchmarks and/or comparison information

• Type action plans or correct solution information

• Level of aggregation of feedback data (individual versus team)

• Role for intermediate outcomes/process measures versus patient-level outcomes

Characteristics of the targeted behaviours

• Perceived importance of the target relative to other priorities

• Observability of improvement (whether impact of using a new practice can be seen quickly)

• The degree to which the recommended practice requires changes in habits and routines

• Complexity of targeted behaviours (number of indicators reported or behavioural changes required and skill level necessary for desired behaviour change)