Study | Country | Study type | Participants (number of surgeons) | Specialty | Setting | Leadership Intervention of interest | Quality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ahmed 2019 [32] | Pakistan | Mixed methods RCT including non-technical skills scale followed by focus group | 28 | Obstetrics and gynaecology | Hospital operating theatre | Non-technical skills training (didactic and practical sessions) | Medium |
Al-Jundi 2016 [33] | UK | Mixed methods-survey with open-ended questions and Non-technical skills scale | 76 | Not specified | 1 teaching and 2 district general hospitals (NHS) | Non-technical skills training (acceptability of assessments) | Hig |
Brindle 2018 [34] | USA | Qualitative–semi-structure interviews | 4 | Surgical quality improvement implementation leaders | 3 large public health systems (20 hospitals) and one army medical centre | Surgical debriefing program | High |
Brook 2020 [35] | USA | Quantitative survey | 117 | Academic orthopaedic surgeons | Academic residency programs | Mentoring | Low |
Cochran 2019 [36] | USA | Qualitative interviews | 15 | Academic surgeons (varying specialties) | Unclear | Mentoring | High |
Dominguez 2021 [37] | Colombia | Qualitative-semi structured interviews | 16 | Surgeons identified as exponents of a transformational leadership style | unclear | ‘Job crafting’ from senior surgeons to enhance residents | High |
Doumouras 2017 [38] | Canada | Quantitative non-randomised prospective study including non-technical skills scale | 23 | General surgery residents | McMaster University General Surgery Residency Program | Non-technical skills training (crisis simulation training with debrief based on crisis resource management principles) | High |
Foley 2021 [39] | Australia | Quantitative survey | 118 | Consultant surgeons (varying specialities) | 2 tertiary hospitals | Peer-based coaching | High |
Gostlow 2017 [40] | Australia | Quantitative case–control including non-technical skills scale | 70 | Surgical trainees (40), experienced consultants (30) (varying specialties mainly general surgery) | Unclear | Non-technical skills training (before and after the introductions of Royal Australasian College of Surgeons Surgical Education and Training (SET) curriculum) | High |
Greenberg 2018 [41] | USA | Mixed methods survey, focus groups and interview | 12 | Varied experience and specialty | Range- academic, private urban and private rural | Video based coaching | Medium |
Gregory 2018 [42] | USA | Quantitative retrospective including 360° feedback | 12 | Orthopaedic surgery service chiefs | urban academic orthopedic surgery department | 360° feedback program and coaching | High |
Hart 2020 [43] | USA | Quantitative survey | 149 | Orthopaedic residents | University, community and military-based programs | Mentoring | Low |
Hill 2018 [44] | USA | Quantitative survey | 17 | Junior residents general surgery | University hospital | Leadership development programme (lectures with discussion) | Medium |
Hu J 2020 [45] | USA and Canada | Quantitative non-randomised study including 360° feedback | 547 | Variety of specialties—neurosurgery, orthopaedic, obstetrics and gynaecology, cardiothoracic, plastics, urology | Academic and community hospitals | 360° feedback programme (Group 1-Feedback report only Group 2-Debriefing only Group 3-Debriefing and coaching) | High |
Hu Y 2016 [46] | USA | Quantitative study (video-based observational) | 5 | General and oncological surgery | Quaternary care hospital | Assessment of leadership styles in the operating room | Medium |
Jaffe 2016 [47] | USA | Qualitative interview | 24 | Academic surgeons (variety of specialities) Many in leadership positions—section and division heads and program directors | University | Views on leadership development programme | High |
Jayasuria-Illesinghe 2016 [48] | Sri Lanka | Qualitative interview | 15 | Junior and senior general surgeons | Teaching hospital | Views on teamwork, team member roles, and team processes | High |
Kaderli 2015 [49] | Switzerland | Quantitative survey | 512 | General surgeons—junior and senior | Mixed-university hospital, referral, and regional hospitals and private practice | Mentoring | Low |
Kawase 2016 [50] | Japan, USA, Finland, and Hong Kong | Quantitative survey | 225 | Women surgeons (varied specialties and career stages) | 60% were affiliated with an academic institution, 22% a general hospital, 12% private practice | Views on factors that promote or impede advancement of women as leaders | Medium |
Lee SH 2021 [51] | USA | Quantitative prospective pre-post cohort study | 36 | Orthopaedic surgeons-attending, resident and fellow level | Hospital | Leadership development programme (communication, lectures, discussion, and grand rounds) | Low |
Lee T 2020 [52] | USA | Quantitative survey | 52 | American College of Surgeons Society of Surgical Chairs | Academic Surgery Departments | Experience of leadership and academic advancement | Medium |
Mutabdzic 2015 [53] | Canada | Qualitative interview | 14 | Staff surgeons -Varied specialties | University affiliated hospitals | Coaching | High |
Nicksa 2015 [54] | USA | Quantitative pre- and post-evaluation and survey feedback | 37 | Junior surgical residents (post-graduate year 1 and 2) on general, vascular and cardiothoracic surgery | San Francisco VA Medical Center | Simulation | High |
Nurudeen 2015 [55] | USA | Quantitative feedback survey including 360° feedback | 118 | Attending surgeons cardiac, thoracic, vascular, orthopedic, plastic, and general surgery departments | 8 hospitals including academic medical centers and university affiliated community hospitals with a voluntary medical staff | 360° feedback programme | Medium |
Pena 2015 [56] | Australia | Quantitative single-blinded, prospective comparative trial including non-technical skills scale | 40 | Trainees and fellows of Mixed specialty's | Unclear | Simulation  ± non-technical skills workshop | High |
Praderelli 2016 [57] | USA | Qualitative interview | 21 | Academic surgeons varied specialities—many in leadership positions, e.g. program directors | Large academic institution | Leadership development programme | High |
Ramjeeawon 2020 [58] | UK | Quantitative pre-post test study including non-technical skills scale | 16 | General and vascular surgeons | Unclear | Simulation  ± non-technical skills workshop | High |
Sinclair 2015 [59] | UK and ROI | Mixed methods survey with open-ended questions | 565 | Trainees of all grades and specialties | National survey varied settings | Mentorship | High |
Somasundram 2018 [60] | UK | Mixed methods NOTTS scores and feedback form with open-ended questions | 48 | Urology trainees | Unclear | Simulation  + non-technical skills wardrounds | High |
Stephens 2018 [61] | USA | Quantitative survey | 288 | Cardiothoracic surgery residents | Unclear | Mentoring | High |
Vitous 2019 [62] | USA | Qualitative interviews | 14 | Range of clinical areas including general, vascular, plastic, thoracic, and transplant surgery | The University of Michigan | Leadership development programme | High |
Vu 2020 [63] | USA | Qualitative- interview | 18 | General surgery residents | Tertiary care academic institution | Feedback | High |
Yule 2015 [64] | USA | Quantitative randomised trial including non-technical skills scale | 16 | Senior surgical residents | Academic medical center | Simulation  ± non-technical skills feedback | Medium |