Table 1 Defining dissemination bias in the context of qualitative research

GRADE-CERQual definition of dissemination bias in the context of qualitative research

A systematic distortion of the phenomenon of interest due to selective dissemination of qualitative studies or the findings of qualitative studies

GRADE for effectiveness definition of publication bias

A systematic under-estimation or an over-estimation of the underlying beneficial or harmful effect due to the selective publication of studies [31]

OPEN framework of (non-) dissemination of research findings

The approach includes three parts:

1. Issues that need to be considered when exploring possible biases due to selective dissemination of research findings (What?)

2. Stakeholders who could assume responsibility for the various stages of conducting a clinical trial and disseminating clinical trial documents (Who?)

3. Motivations that may lead the various players to disseminate study findings selectively, thereby introducing bias in the dissemination process (Why?) [17]

Cochrane definition of publication bias

The publication or non-publication of research findings, depending on the nature and direction of the results [18]

Cochrane definition of outcome reporting bias

The selective reporting of some outcomes but not others, depending on the nature and direction of the results [18]