Table 1 The relationships between our conceptual framework and benchmark works on OPR: types of participation

Consultation: Non-academic partners are consulted by (and influence) researchers for research questions; and methodology, or collecting, analyzing, or interpreting data; and uptake or dissemination of research findings (no research co-governance).

Consultation: Local opinions asked; researchers analyze and decide course of action.

Passive participation: Providing input (information and data) for the study.

Technical collaboration: Researcher identifies problem and intervention; the goal is to gain practitioner’s interest in the research and agreement to facilitate and help with its implementation.

Shallow participation: Researchers control the entire process.

Experimental: Researcher is the expert, participants are respondents.

Co- construction: Non-academic partners work actively with researchers in determining: Research questions; and methodology, or collecting, analyzing, or interpreting data; and uptake or dissemination of research findings (research co-governance).

Cooperation: Locals, with outsiders, determine priorities; outsiders direct the process.

Active participation: Making a contribution to the research process.

Mutual collaboration: The researcher and practitioners come together to identify potential problems, their underlying causes and possible interventions.

Increasingly deep participation: A movement towards the researchers relinquishing control and devolving ownership of the process to those whom it concerns.

Organizational: Locals determine research focus and consult researcher to conduct research.

Co-learning: locals & researchers share their knowledge, create new understanding, & jointly form action plans.

Professionalizing: Outside researcher and locals collaborate; roles are merged.

Collective action: locals set own agenda & mobilize to carry it out without outside initiators/ facilitators.

Enhancement: Researcher as facilitator; assists practitioners to raise their collective consciousness.

Empowering: Outside researcher and locals are co-researchers and co-change agents; Roles are shared.