Table 1 Study characteristics

Bunger et al. [29]

To investigate how a learning collaborative focusing on trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy impacted advice seeking patterns between clinicians and key learning sources

Behavioral Health Agencies (USA)

Evaluation

Observational

Quantitative

Questionnaires

Social network analysis

Individual and organization

Change in professional networks

Elouafkaoui et al. [33]

To analyze the impact of individualized audit and feedback interventions on dentists’ antibiotic prescribing rates

NHS general dental practices in Scotland

Implementation and evaluation

Experimental

Cluster randomized controlled trial; comparative effectiveness and process evaluation

Prescribing and claims data

Single principle analysis, analyses of covariance, intra-cluster correlations

Organization

Total number of antibiotic items dispensed per 100 NHS treatment claims over 12 months after intervention

English [28]

To design an intervention to improve district hospital services for children

Hospitals (Kenya)

Design

Observational

N/A

Environmental scans/literature searches; a priori knowledge about context

Repeatedly moving backwards and forwards between identified causes, proposed interventions, identified theory, and

knowledge of the existing context to develop the intervention

N/A

N/A

Gould et al. [22]^a

Design 2: theoretically enhanced audit and feedback interventions and investigate their feasibility and acceptability

Hospitals (England)

Feasibility assessment, piloting

Observational

Mixed

Study A: existing feedback documents (e.g., written reports, action planning templates)

Study B: semi-structured interviews and observations

Study C: semi-structured interviews, observations, surveys

Study A: structured content analysis

Study B: qualitative case study analysis

Study C: content analysis of interviews and descriptive statistics from questionnaires

Organization

Specific beliefs relating to ordering blood transfusion, determinants of implementation

Graham-Rowe et al. [25]^a

To identify and synthesize modifiable barriers and enablers in screening for diabetic retinopathy

Multiple

Evaluation

Systematic review

Systematic literature search

Qualitative and quantitative data extracted from identified literature

Theory-based structured content analysis

Individual and organization

The potential role and relative importance of each TDF and CFIR domain in influencing retinopathy screening attendance; plus variations in barriers and enablers across demographic groups

Manca et al. [24]^a

To implement and evaluate the Building on Existing Tools to Improve Chronic Disease Prevention and Screening in Primary Care program

Primary care (Canada)

Evaluation

Observational

Mixed

Descriptive data; semi-structured interviews

Descriptive statistics; qualitative content analysis

Individual

Program reach, effectiveness, adoption, maintenance

Moullin et al. [30]

To investigate professional service implementation in community pharmacy, to contextualize and advance a generic implementation framework

Community pharmacies (Australia)

Evaluation

Observational

Qualitative

Semi-structured one-on-one interviews

Framework analysis

Individual and organization

General themes surrounding the process of implementation, and influences on implementation

Murphy et al. [27]

Design and implement a capacity-building program to enhance pharmacist’ roles in mental health care

Pharmacies (Canada)

Design

Observational

N/A

Environmental scans/literature searches; a priori knowledge about context

Identified target behavior, conducted a capability-opportunity-motivation and behavior assessment, and identified specific behavior change techniques

N/A

N/A

Newlands et al. [31]

To elucidate barriers and facilitators of using local measures instead of prescribing antibiotics to manage dental infections

NHS general dental practices in (Scotland)

Evaluation

Observational

Qualitative

Semi-structured one-on-one interviews

Theory-based structured content analysis

Individual

Self-reported barriers and facilitators of using just local measures, and not antibiotics, to treat dental infections

Prior et al. [23]^a

Compare effectiveness of and evaluate processes associated with individualized audit and feedback strategies for translating evidence-based guidelines on antibiotic prescribing into dentistry practice

General dentist practices (Scotland)

Implementation

Experimental

Partial factorial cluster randomized controlled trial; comparative effectiveness, process evaluation

Claims data, semi-structured interviews

Analysis of covariance and content analysis

Organization

Number of antibiotic items dispensed, specific beliefs regarding prescribing behavior, barriers and facilitators to implementation

Sales et al. [26]^a

Determine the context, barriers, and facilitators to providing advanced care planning and goals of care conversations with veterans, to support providers in meeting a new system-wide mandate for these conversations

Veterans Affairs nursing homes, Veterans Affairs home-based primary care programs in five regional Veterans Affairs networks (USA)

Design and implementation

Observational

Mixed

Context and barrier and facilitator assessments

Interrupted time series/segmented regression analysis with matched comparisons

Individual and organization

(1) Proportion of veterans who have documented goals of care conversations after admission; (2) variation in goals of care conversation practice measures; (3) development of tools to improve implementing goals of care conversations

Templeton et al. [32]

Identify patient-, organization-, and system-level factors influencing dental caries management

NHS primary care dentist offices in (Scotland)

Evaluation

Observational

Mixed

Questionnaires assessing current practices and beliefs sent to 651 dentists;

eight in-depth case studies that observed routine dental visits and interviewed providers and patients

Descriptive statistics, univariate analyses, logistic regressions, and qualitative content analysis

Individual and organization

Perceptions of barriers and facilitators to improve caries prevention and management, from the point of view of patients, providers, the dental practices themselves and policy-makers