Table 1 Conceptual frameworks designed for use by researchers
Author, Year, Aims | Dissemination elements | Theoretical foundations | Description/Comment |
|---|---|---|---|
Winkler [11] 1985 Develop a model to aid understanding about how new medical information in general and technology assessments in particular reaches practising physician and affects their practice | The source of communication The channels of communication The communication message The characteristics of the audience receiving the communication The setting in which the communication is received | Persuasive communication Explicitly based on McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication. Diffusion of innovations Also sets framework in the context specifically the innovation-decision process. Reference to other included frameworks None | Communication effectiveness determined by five attributes. Appears to be first application of McGuire's matrix to the context of medical technology assessment. Argues that formal information dissemination followed by informal interaction with influential and knowledgeable colleagues likely to have most impact. |
1994, 2009 Presents a framework to be used by researchers seeking to promote the findings of a systematic review. | Review topic Message Audience Source Setting/context Communication channels Implementation of strategy Feed back and evaluation | Persuasive communication Revised version acknowledges McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication. Implicit in original version that is explicitly derived from Winkler. Diffusion of innovations 2009 version also sets framework in the context of Diffusion of innovations specifically the innovation-decision process. Reference to other included frameworks Winkler Lomas Greenhalgh in 2009 version Hughes in 2009 version Lavis in 2009 version | Framework for disseminating the findings of systematic reviews. Originally postulated that dissemination effectiveness influenced by the sources of communications, media used, and audiences targeted. Later versions acknowledge other elements of persuasive communications and expand into a three phase 'plan, develop, and implement process that assumes interaction with target audiences and consideration of setting in which messages received. |
National Center for the Dissemination of Disability Research (NCDDR)[19, 38] 1996, 2001 To provide a knowledge base for strengthening the ways in which research results can be accessed and used by those who need them. | source (i.e., agency, organization, or individual responsible for creating the new knowledge or product, and/or for conducting dissemination activities) content (message that is disseminated, that is, the new knowledge or product itself, as well as any supporting information or materials) medium (i.e., ways in which the knowledge or product is described, 'packaged,' and transmitted) user ( or intended user, of the information or product to be disseminated) | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but four (source, message, audience, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication evident. Diffusion of innovations Also mentions Diffusion of Innovations; specifically the innovation-decision process. Reference to other included frameworks None | Review of literature suggests that some combination of four major dimensions of knowledge utilization that can help to strengthen dissemination efforts. A detailed practical ten step-by-step guide for researchers later produced. |
2000 Review the process of dissemination by those who carry it out, those who disseminate it and those who, potentially, make use of it. Examine current approaches to dissemination, considered their effectiveness, highlight obstacles to successful integration of research into practice, and suggest a range of strategies to assist successful dissemination and implementation of research findings. | Provide accessible summaries of research Keep the research report brief and concise Publish in journals or publications which are user friendly Use language and styles of presentation which engage interest Target the material to the needs of the audience Extract the policy and practice implications of research Tailor dissemination events to the target audience and evaluate them Use the media Use a combination of dissemination methods Be proactive Understand external factors | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but four (setting, message, audience, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication evident. Reference to other included frameworks CRD | Commissioned by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation, a framework based on non-systematic literature review and survey of key informants and organisations (including CRD). Authors suggest that active dissemination of research is often under resourced by research commissioners and researchers and that insufficient time and money are set aside when the original funding is considered Five factors identified as contributing to effective dissemination: relevance, quality, accessibility, ownership and timing. List for researchers of factors that can help them disseminate research successfully. Report also outlines suggestions for commissioners, policy makers and practitioners for improving the effectiveness of research dissemination. |
Harmsworth [21] 2001 To help educational development projects engaged in the dissemination of new products, materials and good practice in learning and teaching to create an effective dissemination strategy | What is dissemination? What do we want to disseminate? Who are our stakeholders and what are we offering them? When do we disseminate? What are the most effective ways of disseminating? Who might help us disseminate? How do we prepare our strategy? How do we turn our strategy into an action plan? How do we cost our dissemination activities? How do we know we have been successful? | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but three (message, audience, channel) of the McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication evident Reference to other included frameworks None | Practical question based guide for educational development projects. States that it is based on experiences from over 100 educational development projects, in particular, the Fund for the Development of Teaching and Learning (FDTL) and the Teaching, Learning Technology Programme (TLTP) and Innovations Fund. |
Herie [22] 2002 Presents an integrated dissemination model for social work and case study example to illustrate the practical application of the model | Assess market opportunities and identify target system Engage target system Field test the intervention Disseminate the intervention broadly Gather system feedback and provide ongoing consultation. | Diffusion of innovations Social marketing Reference to other included frameworks NCDDR | Describes an integrated dissemination model for social work and provides an example to illustrate its practical application (OutPatient Treatment In ONtario Services -OPTIONS project) Argues that diffusion of innovations and social marketing address the important question of how to put the products of research where they will do the most good: into the hands of practicing clinicians. |
Scullion [23] 2002 Examine examples of effective dissemination strategies, provide insights and suggest pointers for researchers, research students and others who may be involved in dissemination. | Source of the message Message characteristics Medium selected to present the message Target users | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but four (message, source, audience, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication Reference to other included frameworks Carpenter CRD Lavis | Practical guide aimed at nursing researchers. Refers to early descriptions of the CRD approach [39]. Author argues that current commitment evidence-based practice will have limited impact on practice and patient care until a similar commitment to dissemination is evident at both corporate and individual levels. |
Jacobson [14] 2003 To develop a framework that researchers and other knowledge disseminators who are embarking on knowledge translation can use to increase their familiarity with the intended user groups. | Five domains: The user group The issue The research The researcher-user relationship Dissemination strategies | None stated Reference to other included frameworks None | Novel framework derived from a review of the research utilisation literature and from the authors' own experience. Emphasises the importance of understanding user context. Each 'domain' provides researchers with a set of questions that can be used to aid the prioritisation of audiences and to develop and tailor relevant messages across user groups. |
Lavis [15] 2003 Provide an organizing framework for a knowledge transfer strategy and an overview of our understanding of the current knowledge for each of the five elements of the framework | What should be transferred to decision makers? To whom should it be transferred? By whom should research knowledge be transferred? How should research knowledge be transferred? With what effect should research knowledge be transferred? | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but four (message, audience, source, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication Reference to other included frameworks None | Organising framework and overview of literature relating to knowledge transfer strategies. Question format implicitly mirrors Lasswell's famous description of the act of communications as 'Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect' [37]. |
Farkas [24] 2003 Describe a conceptual framework for the dissemination and utilisation of information, long with examples of its use | Exposure strategies are those dissemination methods that focus on the goal of increased knowledge Experience strategies focus on the goal of increased positive attitudes towards the new knowledge Expertise strategies focus on the goal of increased competence Embedding strategies target consumers tend to be personally focused | Diffusion of innovations Diffusion of innovations in that research has concluded knowledge is not a 'thing to be sent and received. Rather disseminating new findings or information involves communicating through 'certain channels over time among members of a social system' Reference to other included frameworks NCDDR | Authors suggest most dissemination practices are not organized or planned to achieve comprehensive impact. Role of framework is to help researchers understand dissemination and utilization as a series of active learning strategies and to direct these at particular knowledge goals and the needs of particular users. Paper also presents examples of '4E' use. |
Economic and Social Research Council [26] 2004 Provide advice on planning and prioritising activities and includes a template you can use to structure your own strategy. Aimed at research directors but is applicable to any communications exercise and should be useful to a wider group of researchers. | Checking perceptions Setting objectives Agreeing principles Developing messages and branding Prioritising audiences Choosing channels Planning activities Estimating time Estimating budget Evaluating success | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but four (message, audience, source as branding, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication Reference to other included frameworks None | A detailed practical step-by-step guide on planning and prioritising research communication. Involves all key elements of McGuire's persuasive communication matrix but also addresses more practical issues such as timing and availability of resources. Available at: www.esrc.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/CTK/communications-strategy/default.aspx |
Canadian Health Services Research Foundation [25] 2004 List of Key elements that should be included in a dissemination plan. Provide a good overview of some of the most critical things that should be considered | Project overview Dissemination goals Target audiences Key messages (contextualised) Sources/messengers Dissemination activities, tools, timing and responsibilities Budget Evaluation | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but all (message, audience, setting, source, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication Reference to other included frameworks None | Brief overview of key elements that should be considered as part of a collaborative research planning process. Involves all key elements of McGuire's persuasive communication matrix but also addresses more practical issues such as timing and availability of resources. Available at: www.chsrf.ca/keys/use_disseminating_e.php |
European Commission [27] 2004 Aims to assist project coordinators and team leaders to generate an effective flow of information and publicity about the objectives and results of their work, the contributions made to European knowledge and scientific excellence, the value of collaboration on a Europe-wide scale, and the benefits to EU citizens in general. | Defining key messages Establishing target audiences Selecting the appropriate modes of communication Tailoring information to the intended outlets Building good relationships with the media Evaluating results Maximising the exposure of messages Tapping useful Commission and other external resources | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but three (message, audience, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication Reference to other included frameworks None | Practical guide aimed at researchers in EU Sixth (now seventh) Framework Programme projects. Provides an outline of good practices to assist researchers to generate an effective flow of information and publicity about the objectives and results of their work. Focuses primarily on research communication via mass media channels |
Carpenter [28] 2005 Designed to assist the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Patient Safety grantees with disseminating their research results | What is going to be disseminated? Who will apply it in practice? Through whom can you reach end users? How you convey the research outcomes? How you determine what worked? Where do you start? | Persuasive communication Not explicit but four (message, audience, source, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication derived from Lavis Diffusion of innovations Reference to other included frameworks NCDDR Lavis | Practical guide including six major elements aimed at AHRQ patient safety researchers. Basic premise is to provide a structure to what can be a nebulous concept yet which researchers are increasingly expected to respond. Emphasises importance of engaging end users in planning process. |
Bauman [29] 2006 Provide a six step framework for understanding international approaches to physical activity diffusion and dissemination. | Describe the innovation, its rationale and evidence base, and its relevance in an international context; Describe the target audience for dissemination and the sequence, timing, and formatting of dissemination strategies; Define the international communication channels for the innovation; Determine the role of key policymakers and sustainable partnerships that are needed to implement the innovation at different levels (local, state, national, international); Identify the barriers and facilitators of the innovation in the international context; and Conduct research and evaluation to understand the dissemination process. | Diffusion of innovations Application of Diffusion of Innovations in a public health context Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but three (audience, channel, setting) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication Reference to other included frameworks None | Authors emphasise that dissemination one part of diffusion process. Much of framework based on expert opinion and experiences. Four case studies presented to illustrate aspects of framework. Authors suggest that these share some common elements, including strong advocacy, good communications between key individuals and institutions, and the presence of shared values and population-level approaches. |
Zarinpoush [31] 2007 To provide a framework that is intended to help non-profit organizations plan, conduct, and evaluate efforts to transfer and exchange knowledge with others | Define the target audience Preparing the message (Clear, Concise, Consistent, Compelling, Continuous) Selection of transfer method (s) Messenger credibility Evaluation of expected effects | Persuasive communication Not explicitly stated but four (message, source, audience, channel) of McGuire's five attributes of persuasive communication Reference to other included frameworks Lavis | Five key elements to consider when planning knowledge transfer and exchange activity. States elements derived from recent literature, including Lavis. |
Formoso [30] 2007 To analyse the barriers to knowledge transfer that are often inherent in the format of the information communicated. Proposes a more user-friendly, enriched format to facilitate the translation of evidence-based information into practice. | Five dimensions for enhancing information delivery: Contextualization/enrichment Validity/critical appraisal Comprehensibility of data on clinical benefits and harms Applicability and relevance Straightforwardness and appeal | Social marketing Reference to other included frameworks None | Describes five dimensions for enhancing information delivery and argues that little attention is focussed on the way clinical information is constructed and communicated and how it can be made more relevant, acceptable and eventually 'got through' to practitioners. Social marketing techniques may help the promotion of evidence-based knowledge. This would entail systematically analysing and addressing barriers to clarity and acceptability of information, and offering a comprehensive and critical look at its validity, biases and relevance. However, paper does not fully describe or apply the key features of a social marketing approach. |
Majdzadeh [32] 2008 Provide a conceptual framework to identify barriers and facilitators and design strategies to knowledge translation strategies to be used by organisations doing research | Five domains: Knowledge creation considers the characteristics of researchers and research Knowledge transfer considers resources and strategies Research utilization considers the characteristics of decision makers and context of decision making; Question transfer considers research priorities and funders Context of organization considers the leadership system, policies, values, and culture of the organisation doing research | None stated Reference to other included frameworks Jacobson Lavis | Practical Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS) framework developed from review of literature Authors' suggest universities depend primarily on the passive dissemination of knowledge. They suggest the following strategies can make knowledge translation more effective in universities: defining and setting up of a system to assess the knowledge translation cycle; implementation and use of information technology; identification and encouragement of face-to-face interactions between researchers and decision makers; exchanging knowledgeable individuals among centres; creating mutual trust, a common language and culture for the creation of organizational knowledge; using important motivational tools in the university; using multidimensional methods for knowledge transfer |
Friese [33] 2009 To identify what the cultural divides are between researchers and policymakers and how social scientists have bridged these differences by careful attention to several pragmatic practices for increasing research use in policymaking | Conceptualize policy work, not as disseminating information, but as developing relationships Take the initiative to contact policymakers or policy intermediaries Learn about the target policymaking audience Communicate research findings in ways that meet policymakers' information needs Use clear, careful language when dealing with myths about vulnerable populations Familiarize yourself with the policymaking process Provide a timely response to the questions driving the policy debate Learn how to approach policy work as an educator rather than an advocate Show respect for policymakers' knowledge and experience Be patient and self-rewarding in defining success. | Two-communities theory Reference to other included frameworks None | Based around notion that the underutilisation of research is down to a communication gap between researchers and policymakers, who have differing goals, information needs, values, and language that are best thought of as a cultural divide. Ten recommendations derived from qualitative interviews on the barriers and facilitators to research communication with social scientists working in family policy. |
Yuan [34] 2010 Present a conceptual framework and propose a eight point strategy for improving the dissemination of best practices by national quality improvement campaigns | Provide simple, evidence- based recommendations Align messages with strategic goals of adopting organization Use a nodal organizational structure Engage a coalition of credible campaign sponsor Establish threshold of participating organizations Provide practical implementation tools Create networks to foster learning opportunities Monitor progress and evaluate impact | Diffusion of innovations Builds on Diffusion of Innovations but with a focus on active dissemination; planned efforts to persuade targeted groups to adopt an innovation Reference to other included frameworks Greenhalgh | Authors recognise that dissemination impact depends on contextual factors, including the nature of the innovation itself, external environmental incentives, and features of the adopting organizations. They argue that although important contextual considerations are outside the control of disseminators, greater use of their strategy is likely to promote more potent campaign efforts, more effective dissemination, and ultimately greater take-up of evidence-based practices. |